The Character of Leadership. Seminary president Jeff Iorg believes that character, and character development, are essential foundations for effective leaders.
In The Character of Leadership, he writes about how God ever shapes character in the life of every leader, and in relation, how continual spiritual formation is a process to which every good leader.
Leadership in Practice. Recent financial crises and other high-profile mismanagement cases have brought a spotlight to the quality of leader character in the business sector. Leadership in Practice is the first book to provide an authoritative collection of cases to engage students interested in the importance of the character of business leaders. Accepts the status quo Challenges it Is the classic good soldier Is his own person Does things right Does the right thing Tabel 1.
These theories hypothesize that the specific traits of an individual give them better propensity to be a leader. These personality traits or behavioral characteristics are inherent in the family and passed on genetically. This theory emphasizes that leaders share many common traits and characteristics that make them successful. The theory was popularized in the by Gordon Alport and Hans Eysenck Trait theories of leadership differentiated leaders from nonleaders by focusing on personal qualities and characteristics.
Stephen P. Robbins, According to Eysenck this theory based primarily on physiology and genetics—interested in temperament the aspect of personality that exists from birth. Extraversion characterized by being outgoing, talkative, and in need of external stimulation b. Neuroticism or emotionality characterized by high levels of negative affect such as depression and anxiety. Neuroticism based on activation thresholds in the part of the brain responsible for the fight-or-flight response.
Activation can be measured by heart rate, blood pressure, cold hands, sweating, and muscular tension. Neurotic people, who have low activation thresholds and are unable to control their emotional reactions, experience negative affect in the face of minor stressors.
Emotionally stable people, who have high activation thresholds and good emotional. The two dimensions axes , extraversion-introversion and emotional stability instability, define four quadrants: a.
Stable extraverts sanguine qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, good leaders b. Unstable extraverts choleric qualities such as touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible c.
Stable introverts phlegmatic qualities such as calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive d. These are people with tendencies to psychosis, meaning that they are more likely to have problems dealing with reality. Hans and Sybil Eysenck, His work is based upon Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, in that he grouped the hierarchy into lower-order needs Theory X and higher-order needs Theory Y.
He suggested that management could use either set of needs to motivate employees, but better results would be gained by the use of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. McGregor, These two opposing perceptions theorized how people view human behavior at work and organizational life : a.
Theory X This is the authoritative and traditional style of management. Theory X managers assume that people are lazy, don't want to work and it is the job of the manager to force or coerce them to work. People are viewed as a "cost" that must be monitored and controlled.
It is based on three basic assumptions: 1. The average person inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible. Most people have to be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened to get them to work towards organizational goals. The average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, isn't ambitious and simply seeks security.
In practice Theory X managers tend to be autocratic and controlling, and feel it is up to them to ride people and make them do their work. Little emphasis is shown towards developing a positive work environment, and recognition and appreciation would be rare.
People working for these managers tend to be motivated by fear and feel unappreciated. Theory Y This is a more dignified and enlightened management style. Theory Y managers assume people will perform well if treated positively, and that higher order needs dominate most individuals. People are viewed as "assets" that should be valued and developed. It is based on six basic assumptions: 1. The physical and mental effort of work is as natural as play, so the average person does not inherently dislike work.
People will exercise self-direction and self-control in order to achieve objectives. Rewards of satisfaction and self-actualization come from the effort to achieve objectives. The average person learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
Most people have a capacity for imagination, ingenuity and creativity. The intellectual potential of most people is only partially realized.
In practice Theory Y managers tend to be participative when making decisions, and value both results and relationships.
These managers tend to delegate and empower their people because they trust them and feel they will do good work i. Priorities will be given to developing positive work environments, and expressing regular recognition and appreciation. These managers will also feel that people are important and worth developing. People working for these managers tend to feel appreciated and dignified, and will generally have good morale and feel motivated.
The goal was to match leadership style with work conditions in order to achieve leadership effectiveness. Isolating the situational conditions proved to be somewhat difficult. Three of the most successful contingency theories are presented here. Fiedler created the Least Preferred Coworker LPC questionnaire, which purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship- oriented.
If the situation and style are not optimal, then the situation needs to be modified or the leader needs to be replaced. Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors that will determine the appropriate leadership style. Measured as good or poor. Measured as high or low. Measured as strong or weak. Considerable evidence supports substantial parts of Fiedler's model.
In the more recent and simplified version of the model, there is even stronger evidence to support its conclusions. However, the LPC questionnaire is problematic and the contingency variables are complex and difficult for practitioners to assess, making this a difficult model to use on a practical basis. Because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers: the in-group.
While the selection process is unclear, leaders tend to choose in-group members high LMX because they have attitude and personality characteristics that are similar to the leader or a higher level of competence than do the out-group members low LMX. The selections appear to be relatively stable over time.
Leaders induce LMX by rewarding those employees with whom they want a closer linkage and punishing those with whom they do not. High LMX employees are allowed to communicate frequently with the supervisor, while low LMX employees are discouraged from doing so.
Research has been generally supportive and may be tied to the concept of the self- fulfilling prophecy: when leaders expect the best from a set of employees, they tend to get it. In general, research has shown the following: 1 Leaders do differentiate among followers. The Path-Goal Theory. Developed by Robert House, this theory extracts elements from the Ohio State leadership research as well as the expectancy theory of motivation. In Path-Goal theory, the leader's job is to provide followers with information, support, or other resources necessary for them to achieve their goals.
Effective leaders clarify the path to goal achievement and remove any roadblocks the workers encounter along the path.
Unlike Fiedler, House assumes leaders are flexible and that the same leader can display any or all of the necessary behaviours for effectiveness in a given situation.
There are four identified leadership behaviors in this theory: 1 Directive: these leadership behaviors include letting followers know what is expected of them, scheduling work to be done, and giving specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks.
This theory proposes two classes of contingency variables that moderate leadership behavior: 1 Environmental Variables: factors that are outside the control of the employee such as task structure, the formal authority system, and the worker.
These variables determine the type of leader behavior required for outcomes to be maximized. These variables determine how the environment and leader behavior are interpreted. The theory proposes the leader behaviour will be ineffective when it is redundant with the sources of environmental structure or incongruent with employee characteristics.
Specific predictions i. The theory itself, due its complexity, has received mixed support. While this theory is attractive, it may be quite a while before we can safely say that it has practical uses in the workplace. The style employed is driven by the immediate task and the maturity of the group to which they are leading. They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1 to S4: a.
S1: Telling — is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why,when, and where to do the task. S2: Selling — while the leader is still providing the direction, he is now using two-way communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.
S3: Participating — this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high relationship behavior.
S4: Delegating — the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to monitor progress. Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time.
Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation. Readiness According to Hersey and Blanchard, knowing when to use each style is largely dependent on the readiness of the person or group one is leading. The four different readiness levels are: a.
R1 — People at this level of readiness lack the knowledge, skills, or confidence to work on their own, and they often need to be pushed to take the task on.
They are unable and unwilling. The person is, therefore, unable but willing or motivated. R3 — Here, people are ready to perform the task. They will be called able but unwilling or insecure. R4 — These people are able to work on their own. They are, therefore, able and willing or motivated. Accordingly, many researchers in their studies have focused on laeder traits and presented list of leader traits and atributes.
Tabel 3. Characteristcs of admired leaders Effective leaders should have a caring demenor towards their employees duff, Effective leadership required a high degree of acquired learning Corderman, Kirkpatrick and Locke argued whether leadership traits were trainable or not. They devided the six traits , which differentiated leaders from non-leaders into two groups.
According to Green , the reason was that effective leadership was one of the most important factors that effected organizational success. An autocratic style works best when: a There is no need for team input on the decision.
As a result, team members tend to have high job satisfaction and high productivity. Free-reign leadership when leader believes in minimal supervision, leaving most decisions to subordinates. Empowerment when practice in which managers lead employees by sharing power, responsibility, and decision making with them.
Laissez-faire works best when people are capable and motivated in making their own decisions, and where there is no requirement for a central coordination. One reason has be do with obedience to authority. In fact, one can make an argument that in large groups such as the multinational corporations and government agencies authority is the most common type of influence used. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this typeof leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decreasecorruption.
Leaders who would like to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety and are not welcome. They will then build the image of the group, in perticular in the minds of their followers, as being far superior to all others.
Charismatic leader pay a great deal of attention in scanning and reading their environment, and are good at picking up the moods and concerns of both individuals and larger audiences. They then will hone their actions and words to suit the situation. Charismatic leaders use a wide range of methods to manage their image and, if they are not naturally charismatic, may practice assiduously at developing their skills. They may engender trust through visible self-sacrifice and taking personal risks in the name of their beliefs.
They will show great confidence in their followers. They are persuasive and make very effective use of body language as well as verbal language. Managers and team members set predetermined goals together, and employees agree to follow the direction and leadership of the manager to accomplish those goals. The manager possesses power to review results and train or correct employees when team members fail to meet goals.
Employees receive rewards, such as bonuses, when they accomplish goals. Leaders motivate employees and enhance productivity and efficiency through communication and high visibility. This style of leadership requires the involvement of management to meet goals. In this style of leadership the leader supplies complete concern for his followers or workers. In return he receives the complete trust and loyalty of his people.
Workers under this style of leader are expected to become totally committed to what the leader believes and will not strive off and work indepedently. The relationship between these co-workers and leader are extremely solid. The workers are expected to stay with a company for a longer period of time because of the loyalty and trust. Not only do they treat each other like family inside the work force, but outside too.
These workers are able to go to each other with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in what they say is going to truly help them. One of the downsides to a paternalistic leader is that the leader could start to play favorites in decisions. This leader would include the workers to follow and start to exclude the ones who were less loyal. This leader is an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than a commanding voice that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower timeframe than other styles, although employee engagement is higher.
Visionary leadership is said to have positive effects on follower outcomes, resulting in high trust in the leader, high commitment to the leader, high levels of performance among followers, and high overall organizational performance. Leaders need a vision, but great leadership turns that vision into reality. In leadership, the needs of authority, feeling sensitive to the led, and intellectual is necessary.
As the chief decision makers and the people in charge of providing general guidelines for implementation of the strategies, top executives influence their organization in a variety of ways : 1.
The vision and mission affect the culture of an organization by determining the basic assumption, what is important, what needs to be attended to first, and what is considered less valuable. Similarly, the choice of strategy a considered to be the almost-exlusive domain of top management Gupta, In addition to the vision, mission, culture, and strategy, the decision to adopt a new structure, adjust an existing one, or make any changes in the formal interrelationship among employees of an organization rest primarily with top management Miller and Droge, ; Nahavandi, ; Yasai-Ardekani,, Mickey Drexler of the Gap and J.
Crew does not e-mail and does not write memos. He likes to use a public addres system to communicate face to face. His employees learned to check their voice mail on a regular basis and be ready for his questions at any time Munk, A leader who consistntly communicates only through formal reporting channels sets up a different structure than one who crosses hierarchical lines and encourages other to do so, as well.
Allocation of resources and control over the reward system In addition to direct decisions, one of the most powerful effects of top managers on their organization is through the allocation of resources and the control they have over the reward system Kerr and Slocum, ; Schein, A top executive is the final decision maker on allocation of resources to departements or individuals.
If leaders want to encourage continued innovation and creativity. Such allocations reinforce certain goals and actions, support a particular organizational culture and strategy, and create structures that facilitate desired outcomes and discourage undesirable ones Kets de Vries and Miller, ; Miller, For example, top managers can shape the culture of their organization by rewarding conformity to unique norms and standards of behavior at the expense of diversity of behaviors and opinions Nahavandi and Malekzadeh, A comparable process is likely to take place on an individual employee level.
Employees whose actions fit the vision, mission, and culture of the organization are more likely to be rewarded. These processes create domino effects that further lead an organization to reflect the style and preferences of its leader.
Here we shall attempt a normative definition and explain how its many components help us grasp a complex subject. Effective leaders carry the dreams of others to the finish line. Effective leaders have shaped nations, corporations, education systems, and the lives of millions of people. From ancient times to the present, observers remain perplexed about the actual essence of effective leadership and how to teach it. While researchers report multiple studies about leadership effectiveness, they find that myth and historical accounts of historical figures influence the definitions and characteristics of effective leaders.
Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus found definitions of leadership in the literature, and others challenge the lingering belief that personal physical, gender, and personality traits determine successful leadership. Physical size is a factor in athletics and other endeavors that require strength and agility, but weight, height, race, gender, and personality traits are not dominant factors in determining effective leadership. Indeed, Stogdill , Bass , and Bass and Stogdill catalogued and interpreted almost five thousand studies of the concept and found great variance in its definition.
People seem to accept a default position that leadership is simply what leaders do and that leaders are simply people in positions of power over others. An alternative to this position will be offered later. James MacGregor Burns calls these changes toward more human organizations transformational leadership that helps employees find fulfillment in the workplace. Leadership studies have been divided into five themes: 1 leadership as personal quality: a remnant of the great man theories of the s, when personality traits and other human capabilities that gave individuals advantage over others dominated the literature on leadership.
Since situations are fluid, leadership strategies must be adaptive to successfully complete a team project on time and with high quality 4 leadership as relational: stresses that leadership and followership are inextricably linked. A growing area of inquiry on social justice as a moral quality focuses on supporting the theories of leadership that will guide leaders to shape schools and communities toward greater equity and justice through educational programs.
John Hoyle recently added a sixth theme 6 leadership as a force of love and spirituality: goes a step beyond moral quality and servant leadership. John Hoyle and Michael Fullan suggest that school administrators apply love as the key to high performance and problem solutions. The concept of spiritual leadership in educational administration is new. Effective leaders have a sense of spiritual awareness beyond mere religious doctrine to help gain a sense of profound connection to human issues and problems beyond themselves.
Spiritual leaders sense a power greater than mere human knowledge and experience. Although this definition most comfortably applies to the interpersonal, small-group, and network levels found within typical work environments, in almost all political arenas and in some huge organizations, leadership effectiveness will be defined differently.
Stakeholders are people who have an interest in an outcome. In large organizations, the various objectives being served reflect the importance of serving diverse stakeholders. What appears obvious at first - that the objective of business is to increase the bottom line, or that the objective of a political party is to elect candidates - becomes rather complex and muddled when seen in the midst of either surviving in the marketplace or campaigning for office.
In the case of political parties, we can readily understand the various constituencies and interests that must be convinced. Leadership effectiveness at the top of an organization is no longer seen as simply increasing the bottom line or satisfying any one priority because there are equally important, if competing, interests to be served. Similarly, at other levels in the organization, leadership effectiveness is subject to a diversity of objectives. Work flow and interdepartmental decision making processes, the pursuit of mutual efficiency targets and the development of external relationships with key stakeholders e.
The distinction keeps our discussion focused when using these concepts. This mobilization may also involve some real managerial constraints. For example, organizations must be not only effective in implementing their strategy, but also efficient. Leadership effectiveness is fundamentally the practice of the following principles: 1. Build a collective vision, mission, and set of values that help people focus on their contributions and bring out their best.
Establish a fearless communication environment that encourages accurate and honest feedback and self-disclosure. Make information readily available. Establish trust, respect, and peer-based behavior as the norm. Be inclusive and patient, show concern for each person. Demonstrate resourcefulness and the willingness to learn. Create an environment that stimulates extraordinary performance. An example of leadership effectiveness using these principles was described by journalist Fara Warner in Fast Company magazine.
Only ninety thousand cars were sold that year. His action provided momentum for desired change in a consultative fashion involving all the dealers wanting to participate. How do we know we are effective leaders? We have many ways to ascertain performance. We cannot always easily know that our followers are satisfied and that objectives are being met. Download Muhammad s : 11 Leadership Qualities that Changed the World Book Free Complete book of Muhammad s : 11 Leadership Qualities that Changed the World can be found at online bookstore such as amazon,kindle publising, itunes or bookdepository.
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